Complaint of Chest Pain Case Study

Complaint of Chest Pain Case Study Jon Teegardin When assessing the patient with chest pain, it is important to pay attention to all of the information available from the patient. Not all chest pain is related to cardiac issues, and not all incidents of myocardial infarction present with classic chest pain symptoms. There are many possible causes of chest pain. The source of chest pain can be cardiac, respiratory, muscular, gastro-intestinal, or even psychological. This paper will discuss several causes of chest pain, and then address cardiac, circulatory, and respiratory assessments of a patient with a chief complaint of chest pain. Causes of chest pain Myocardial infarction or heart attack results when a blood clot disrupts the flow of blood to the heart muscle itself (Jarvis, 2012). Patients often describe a crushing, heavy feeling in the chest. Sometimes the pain radiates to the jaw or left arm. The pain can hit suddenly or build gradually. This type of pain is not reproducible and isn’t relieved by nitroglycerine. Angina is chest pain caused by a buildup of plaque in the arteries that supply the heart with blood. It is described as a tightness, squeezing, or burning in the chest. It can last anywhere from five to thirty minutes and can occur when the heart is working harder or when it is at rest (Jarvis, 2012). Angina is typically relieved with rest and medication. Aortic dissection occurs when the inner layers of the aorta separate. The pain occurs suddenly and is described as sharp, stabbing, or tearing in nature in the chest or back. The pain is not relieved by rest or medication and is a medical emergency that requires surgical intervention. Digestive causes of chest pain include heartburn, gallbladder, and pancreas issues. This type of pain is described as pain or burning in the epigastric area and is relieved by antacids, dietary changes, or pain medication. Chest pain can be associated with injury to the muscles and cartilage in the chest. An inflammation of the cartilage of the rib cage, known as costochondritis can cause pain. Sore muscles from overexertion or bruised and broken ribs can cause chest pain as well. These types of pain are reproducible and are not relieved by nitroglycerine. Chest pain related to respiratory problems include blood clots in the lung called pulmonary embolism that cause shortness of breath and chest pain. Pleurisy, which is an inflammation of the membrane covering the lung causes chest pain that is worse when coughing or inhaling. Pulmonary hypertension can also cause chest pain. Patient 1 The patient is a 56 year old male that arrives at the emergency room by EMS transport with a complaint of chest pain that began one hour ago. The patient also complains of shortness of breath, and is sweating profusely. EMS has initiated IV access, placed the patient on 2 liters per minute of oxygen, given 325 milligrams of aspirin, and given one sublingual 0.4 milligram nitro. A focused assessment is started. The patient is asked to describe his chest pain and what he was doing when the pain started. The patient reports that he was doing yard work when he became short of breath and started sweating profusely. He felt a crushing pain in his chest and the pain went up the left side of his neck into his jaw. The patient coughs several times while giving this information. He describes the pain as a crushing feeling in his chest. He also states that his left calf has been hurting for several days, but thinks it’s just muscle cramps. Vital signs are obtains and are as follows: Blood pressure is 189/98, pulse is 140 beats per minute. Respirations are labored at 24 per minute. O2 saturation is 95% with two liters per minute of oxygen applied by nasal cannula. The patient’s heart sounds are auscultated and normal S1 and S2 are noted. The apical pulse is bounding and tachycardic at 140 beats per minute. The lungs are auscultated and decreased breath sounds are noted in the right lower lobe. Crackles are noted bilaterally in the lower lobes as well. The brachial pulses are palpated bilaterally by pressing the artery against the bone on the anterior medial aspect of the right and left elbow (Jarvis, 2012). The pulses are strong and equal. The radial pulses are palpated bilaterally by again pressing the artery on the posterior medial aspect of each wrist. These pulses are also strong and equal. Turgor is assessed on each upper extremity by pinching a small fold of skin on the back of the hand. No tenting is observed. The color of the extremity is pink and feels warm to the touch. Capillary refill is assessed by pressing down on the fingernails of each hand and observing the blanching. The capillaries refill in less than 2 seconds. Next the lower extremity pulses are assessed. The femoral pulses are palpated by pressing deeply into the medial aspect of the upper thigh, below the inguinal ligament and about midway between symphysis pubis and anterior superior iliac spine (Jarvis, 2012). Two hands are used, one on top of the other to feel the femoral pulse on each leg. The pulses are even and regular. Moving down the lower extremities, the popliteal pulses are palpated by pressing down on the posterior medial aspect of the knee. The left pulse is slightly diminished compared to the right pulse. Next the posterior tibial pulses are palpated. The posterior tibial pulses are located on the posterior aspect of the ankle. Again, the left pulse is diminished significantly compared to the right pulse. Finally, the dorsalis pedis pulses are palpated on the top of each foot. The left pulses amplitude is low, the right pulse is normal. The left calf is warm and swollen compared to the right calf. The patient complains of pain when the left calf is palpated. Turgor is assessed on the top of each foot and no tenting is observed. Capillary refill is brisk and less than two seconds on the right foot, but is sluggish in the left foot. Decreased pulses in the lower left extremity, swelling and pain are indicative of a blood cl ot known as a deep vein thrombosis (National Institute of Health, 2011). SOAP S: The patient complains of shortness of breath and chest pain that began one hour ago. The patient also complains of left calf pain. O: The patient is hypertensive, tachycardic, is breathing rapidly, and is sweating profusely. Breath sounds are diminished in the right lower lobe. The pulses in the left lower extremity are diminished, the left calf warm, swollen, and tender. A: The patient appears to be suffering from a pulmonary embolism secondary to a deep vein thrombosis in the left lower extremity (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Blood and diagnostic tests are ordered as follows: complete blood count, complete metabolic panel, cardiac enzymes, d-dimer, PT/INR, PTT, ECG, ultrasound of left lower extremity, and CT of the chest with contrast. The results are listed below. Complete blood count is within normal limits. The metabolic panel is within normal limits. The cardiac enzymes are within normal limits, the most important being the troponin level which is less than 0.01, the d-dimer is elevated at 900 ng/ml (normal is P: Anticipate admission of this patient to the ICU. The patient will need to be accurately weighed in anticipation of administration of a heparin drip to prevent further clots and dissolve the clot in the lung and the clot in the left lower extremity. Pulmonary embolism is just one of many causes of chest pain. Although some causes are not medical emergencies it is important to seek medical attention. Early intervention and treatment, especially of cardiac related chest pain is essential in preventing continued or lasting damage to heart muscle. References Jarvis, C. (2012). Physical Examination and Health Assessment [VitalSouce bookshelf version].  Retrieved from http://digitalbookshelf.southuniversity.edu/books/978-1-4377-0151-7/outline/24 Mayo clinic. (2014). Pulmonary embolism. Retrieved November 4, 2014, from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pulmonary-embolism/basics/definition/con-20022849 Mayo Medical Laboratories. (2014). D-Dimer. Retrieved November 4, 2014, from http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical and Interpretive/9290 National Institute of Health. (2011). Deep Vein Thrombosis: Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment and Latest NIH Research | NIH MedlinePlus the Magazine. Retrieved November 4, 2014, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/magazine/issues/spring11/articles/spring11pg20-21.html

In Cold Blood Dialectical Journal Essay

Entry 1, page 5 â€Å"But afterward the townspeople, theretofore sufficiently unfearful of each other to seldom trouble to lock their doors, found fantasy re-creating them over and over again—those somber explosions that stimulated fires of mistrust in the glare of which many old neighbors viewed each other strangely, and as strangers.† I found this quote to be a sad truth. It is disappointing to know that in this small town wherein everyone was on a friendly basis with one another, they would all turn their backs on neighbors they’ve known forever, due to the dangers of their own imagination. Once someone has my trust, I don’t think twice about helping them or confiding in them. And in return, anyone who puts their trust in me should feel safe telling me their deepest, darkest secrets. However, when that trust is broken, so is the image of that person. Then I wonder: if they would lie about something that meant a great deal to our friendship, who knows what other lies they must’ve spread? I begin to question who they are, and if they were ever my friend in the first place. It’s as if I am seeing them in a whole new light. The worst part is, no matter how hard I may try, I just can’t bring myself to talk to that person as comfortably as I had before. Now I have to think: do they have an ulterior motive, or are they honestly trying to regain the lost closeness of our friendship? I am also reminded of the power our imagination has. Giving our minds the ability roam free can plant unnecessary fear in our hearts, which, in turn, makes it harder to trust one another. Just because a friend made an honest mistake, doesn’t mean they’re going to do it again. But, in my mind I see him/her telling everybody personal aspects of my life. It can be rather hard to regain our friendship with such a terrifying image in the back of my mind. I imagine that must be how the citizens of Holcomb, Kansas must have felt. They must have been questioning the integrity of each of their friends, wondering, who could’ve killed a well-respected family? Entry 2, page 29-30 â€Å"Mrs. Kidwell sat down on the bed; she wanted to hold Bonnie in her arms, and eventually Bonnie let herself be held. ‘Wilma,’ she said, ‘I’ve been listening to you, Wilma. All of you. Laughing. Having a good time. I’m missing out on everything. The best years, the children—everything. A little while, and even Kenyon will be grown up—a man. And how will he remember me? As a kind of ghost, Wilma.’† After reading this passage, I could not help but feel so incredibly sorry for Bonnie Clutter. Bonnie did want to be a part of her children’s lives, but due to her illness, she spent the majority of their lives in her bedroom or in a treatment facility. I think Capote included this scene with Bonnie in the novel because as a child, his parents neglected him. They often traveled for lengths of time, leaving Capote in the care of his mother’s relatives. Perhaps Capote related to the Clutter children (mostly Kenyon, seeing as how Bonnie spent the least amount of time with him) due to a feeling of abandonment caused by their absent mothers. I couldn’t imagine the guilt poor Bonnie must’ve felt for not playing an active role in the lives of her children. I know for a fact that my mother plays an important part in my life. She has taught me right from wrong, how to take care of myself, and that I should always treat people with respect. No matter what, I know my mother is always here for me, ready to take me in with open arms. Sadly, Capote never learned such things from either of his parents, which may explain why he was so intent on gaining fame and recognition, so that he may finally be praised and have a feeling of accomplishment. The Clutter kids were luckier than Capote because they had a father, Herb, who instilled wonderful morals into his four children and taught them the things Bonnie could not. Entry 3, page 57 â€Å"But as in every manifestation, she continued to tinker with her handwriting, slanting it to the right or to the left, shaping it roundly or steeply, loosely or stingily—as though she were asking, ‘Is this Nancy? Or that? Or that? Which is me?’ (Once Mrs. Riggs, her English teacher, had returned a theme with a scribbled comment: ‘Good. But why written in three styles of script?’ To which Nancy had replied: ‘Because I’m not grown-up enough to be one person with one kind of signature.’)† Nancy, I believe, perfectly represents teenagers, past and present. Nancy shows that we don’t have the slightest clue who we truly are. That is why our teenage years are so important. These are the years in which we begin to find ourselves, beginning with our signatures (heart or no heart?). There are so many people who expect us to know what we will do with our future when, in actuality, we are only beginning to discover our likes and dislikes, nowhere near deciding what we will be doing for the rest of our lives. So many of us teenagers (and some adults) are trying out different handwritings, or ideas of what we want to do with our lives, before we settle on the one type of calligraphy that we will carry with us forever. Throughout my life, my handwriting has changed drastically, as have my aspirations. As a child, I would write in big loopy letters, which perhaps represented the loopiness of who I wanted to be at the time (a princess). Over the years, as my letters became m ore refined and smaller, so did my aspirations. It’s almost as if my handwriting shows how much reality had sunk in. I went from wanting to become a princess, to President, to a spy, to a marine biologist, to a wildlife photographer, to a business executive, and now to a doctor. Nancy is just using her handwriting as another step in finding who she is. Entry 4, page 109 â€Å"‘Deep down,’ Perry continued, ‘way, way rock-bottom, I never thought I could do it. A thing like that.’† This quote expresses my fear of our humanity. We are not perfect beings. We make mistakes. We have limits. But how do you know how far you can go before you spread yourself too thin? That is why we must push ourselves to find our limits. Sometimes it’s good to push ourselves, like in athletics and academics. But, Perry pushed himself to the breaking point. Perry thought he knew his limits. He never intended to murder a family in cold blood; he just needed money. If anything, he was trying to help them in any way he could,  including making them as comfortable as he possibly could. But he got caught up in the moment, and he murdered the Clutter family point-blank. And what’s even scarier is that so many people could have buckled under the same circumstances, just as Perry did. We would all like to believe we will always stand by our morals and always do the right thing, but when push comes to shove, will you? Our natural instinct is to say â€Å"Of course I will.† However, imagine you’re poor, you have no family (that would help you), and you are desperate for a way to change your life for the better. Now, would you commit a robbery? My job as a big sister is to protect my younger siblings, no matter what. Late one night, I was struggling to finish my homework, I was tired, and I had a major headache. As I was rushing to finish up and go to bed, my little brother, the baby of the family, would not leave me alone. I reached a point where I couldn’t handle it anymore, and I tried to push him away from me, but instead he fell on the ground and began to cry. I immediately felt terrible. I tried to help him up, but he ran away to our mother. I imagined he thought of me as some kind of a monster. My reasons for agitation in no way justified my actions. But the worst part was, I never thought I could ever hurt my baby brother. It made me sick to know that I did. Entry 5, page 191 â€Å"‘You live until you die, and it doesn’t matter how you go; dead’s dead. So why carry on like a sackful of sick cats just because Herb Clutter got his throat cut?’† It’s important that we don’t let anything stop us in life, including death. Yes, death does change things, but it isn’t meant to be the end of the world. The world will continue to spin on, and people will continue their daily basis. While it is vital that we deal with a death through mourning, there is no point in worrying ourselves sick over the death of a loved one. If all we ever did was sit around and worry whenever someone died, we would never have the chance to actually live. Our deceased loved ones would actually want us to live our lives to the fullest, so when our time ultimately comes, we’ll know we made the most of our time here on Earth. We can die in the most heroic way possible, or in the most tragic way. That  doesn’t mean our deaths should be held in a higher regard than someone who had died a â€Å"normal† death. No one’s death is more important than another’s. It doesn’t matter who we were when we wer e alive. Your accomplishments over others, the amount of money you had, how big your house was, the car you drove†¦. You won’t keep those material things once you die. They couldn’t mean less because in the end, we all end up the same way: dead. Entry 6, page 202 â€Å"Perry O’Parsons had died without having ever lived. What was there to look forward to?† Perry O’Parsons was Perry’s alter ego. He had planned to use the name as his stage name for when his music career kicked off. Unfortunately for Perry, he never got the chance to perform his music on a stage, so he never got the chance to reveal Perry O’Parsons. Maybe if Perry’s music career had launched, then maybe he wouldn’t have murdered the Clutter family. What upsets me the most about Perry’s alter ego is when he asks, â€Å"What was there to look forward to?† When he realizes he will never be able to start his life all over as Perry O’Parsons, I feel as if he truly gives up on his dreams. Perhaps this is Capote’s way of saying that we don’t always get what we want, but that doesn’t mean we should give up like Perry did. Not everything is easily attainable. For example, I have the hopes of becoming a doctor, but the work and training is very rigorous. But I can’t just give up. Even if I find I do n’t have the work ethic to become a doctor, life still goes on. I can’t throw a little fit because something didn’t work out in my favor. No matter what, I will have to work hard to do well in whatever it is I choose. If I decide that I actually don’t want to be a doctor, then it just means that I’ve narrowed down my career choices by one. It may not sound like much, but that means I have more time to figure out what career does interest me and I am one step further from ending up like Perry. Entry 7, page 240 â€Å"‘Dick stood guard outside the bathroom door while I reconnoitered. I frisked the girl’s room, and I found a little purse—like a doll’s purse. Inside it was a silver dollar. I dropped it somehow, and it rolled across  the floor. Rolled under a chair. I had to get down on my knees. And just then it was like I was outside myself. Watching myself in some nutty movie. It made me sick. I was just disgusted. Dick, and all his talk about a rich man’s safe, and here I am crawling on my belly to steal a child’s silver dollar. One dollar. And I’m crawling on my belly to get it.’† I think this revelation of Perry’s is a crucial part of the book. This is where Perry looks at who he’s become, and he’s not happy about it. Perry not only knows he’s trying to steal money from a family that has never done one single thing to bring that upon themselves, but now he sees just how desperate he is as he searches for a dollar coin that belongs to Herb’s daughter. He realizes that he has turned into a repulsive and pitiful man. I began to pity Perry, mostly because he had hopes and dreams, unlike Dick, yet there he was, scrounging for a measly dollar. I felt sorry for him because he really did reach â€Å"rock-bottom† (page 109). There he was, ready to rob the Clutters, possibly getting ready to kill them, and he was only in this situation because he chose to follow Dick in the pursuit of some money. Even though Perry is committing a senseless, violent act and I should despise him for doing these savage acts to such a kind family, I can’t help but feel sorry for him. No matter what happens to me in life, I would never want to end up in Perry’s position where I’m questioning how I got to be at such a low point in my life. This quote actually reminds me of Capote as he turned to alcoholism and he began to alienate his friends because he couldn’t give up the drug that is fame. Entry 8, page 255 â€Å"‘And I was right!—that’s just what he wanted to do: admit that Hickock had been telling the truth, and that it was he, Perry Smith, who had shot and killed the whole family. He said he’d lied about it because, in his words, ‘I wanted to fix Dick for being such a coward. Dropping his guts all over the goddam floor.’ And the reason he’d decided to set the record straight wasn’t that he suddenly felt any kinder toward Hickock. According to him he was doing it out of consideration for Hickock’s parents—said he was sorry for Dick’s mother. Said, ‘She’s a real sweet person. It might be some comfort to her to know Dick never pulled the trigger. None of it would have  happened without him, in a way it was mostly his fault, but the fact remains I’m the one who killed them.’† After reading this passage, I was in shock. I honestly believed that Dick was the true murderer of the Clutter family. Well, it turns out that Dick is a chicken who can only talk up a big game, but he can’t do much else. I am just even further confused by Perry’s actions. It is hard to believe that he did in fact kill the Clutters. Perry doesn’t seem like he could be such a cold-hearted killer. After all he did to try to get Dick to turn around and ditch their plan, when he stopped Dick from attempting to rape Nancy, all he did to make the Clutters more comfortable, how nice he was to them†¦. And he was the one who ended up killing them all. Not only that, he only decided to tell the truth about Dick killing no one because he was thinking of Dick’s mother. Even though it was because of Dick that he was even in Kansas, he still tries to look out for his mother by taking the full credit for the murders. It’s almost as if Perry is actually two dif ferent people. I don’t know how I should feel toward Perry anymore. My immediate feelings toward him are pity, fear, and compassion. I can see why Capote was so interested in their case. It’s because nothing is as you would have believed they were. Entry 9, page 339 â€Å"As is customary, the warden, having finished his recitation, asked the condemned man whether he had any last statement to make. Hickock nodded. ‘I just want to say I hold no hard feelings. You people are sending me to a better world than this ever was’; then, as if to emphasize the point, he shook hands with the four men mainly responsible for his capture and conviction, all of whom had requested permission to attend the executions: K.B.I. Agents Roy Church, Clarence Duntz, Harold Nye, and Dewey himself. ‘Nice to see you,’ Hickock said with his most charming smile; it was as if he were greeting guests at his own funeral.† I did not expect Dick to be so polite in his last moments. Throughout the book, majority of what he has said was crude, sarcastic, or humorous. Not only was Dick polite, he even thanked Church, Duntz, Nye, and Dewey for capturing him and, ultimately, sending him to his death. It’s interesting  that Dick says he is going to a â€Å"better world,† but earlier in the book, he mentioned to one of the prison inmates, Andy, who was also on Death Row, to find them a shady spot in Hell. So he either believes Hell is better than Earth, or he thinks he is going to Heaven. Or maybe, he believes in the vast darkness of death, and he can’t wait for the void of nothing. I also thought it was interesting that he smiled until the very end. I don’t know if he smiles because he’s come to terms with his debt, or if he just wants to unnerve the group attending his execution. I personally think that he is accepting his fate, and he’s somewhat at peace with it. However, him being Dick, he wants to go out with a fanfare, give the audience a show, so he makes sure he seems as effervescent as ever. Entry 10, page 340-341 â€Å"But Smith, though he was the true murderer, aroused another response, for Perry possessed a quality, the aura of an exiled animal, a creature walking wounded, that the detective could not disregard.† I can understand why no one ever felt any sympathy for Dick as he was walking up to die because Dick was a rough and tough guy who never let anyone see his true emotions. However, with Perry, I believe that most of the audience has begun to feel sorry for him. Unlike Dick, he doesn’t hide his feelings. He is afraid of what will come next, and that has evoked a response from Detective Dewey. But, how do we know his feelings are real? Earlier in the book when Detective Nye goes to San Francisco to visit Perry’s only living sibling, Barbara, she mentions that Perry can easily fake his emotions to make people feel sorry for him. Maybe he was trying to get everyone there to pity him so much that they would stop his hanging and give him a life sentence. Well the crowd did pity him, but they wanted him to hang for his atrocities. Right before he was hung, Perry apologized for his actions, even though he could never make up for murdering the Clutters. I think the reason why Dew ey refused to see Perry hanging is because he did feel sorry for him.

“Champion of the World” by Maya Angelou Essay

Maya Angelou is the author of thirty best-selling books. In a famous autobiography she wrote a novel titled I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. In this story she composes a chapter remembering her childhood called â€Å"Champion of the World.† This chapter is a memoir during the late 1930’s when Joe Louis became an African American hero by defending his heavyweight title against a white contender in a boxing match. Throughout â€Å"Champion of the World† Maya Angelou uses language, rhythm, and actions of character to create suspense, tension, and anticipation for the reader. First, Maya Angelou implies a strong rhythm to the story. The reader can easily recognize when suspense is occurring because the sentences become shorter. For example, when Angelou and her family thought the Joe Louis was about to lose the sentences were about three to four words long. â€Å"My race groaned. It was our people falling.† â€Å"We didn’t breathe. We didn’t hope. We waited.† The choppiness of these sentences grew very dramatic. Though, as things were getting better for the African American boxer, the sentences grew longer; â€Å"There were a few sounds from the audience, but they seemed to be holding themselves in against tremendous pressure.† When the sentences lengthened, the suspense diminished. Despite the volume of sentences throughout the story, Maya Angelou also uses ellipses to form rhythm. Ellipses were used a few times in the story, but it is greatly emphasized at the end of the match. â€Å"Here’s the referee. He†™s counting. One, two, three, four, five, six, seven†¦ Is the contender trying to get up again?† â€Å"Let’s get the microphone over to the referee†¦ Here he is. He’s got the Brown Bomber’s hand, he’s holding it up†¦ Here he is†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"The winnah, and still heavyweight champeen of the world†¦ Joe Louis.† All of these sentences are building up tension to keep reading because the reader can feel the anticipation of the ending. Furthermore, the language in this piece is unusual. The author uses the words â€Å"rape, whip, lynching, clutched, maimed and penetrate† as if the story was about a rape. Ultimately, using these words helped illustrate the meaning of winning this battle and defeating Joe Louis’s opponent with no mercy. It was not only for the boxer but for the people too. Maya Angelou introduces racial comments as well. â€Å"White boy† and â€Å"cracker† were used in  the story. This language helped correlate with the black versus white aspect. In this time period, blacks and whites were very segregated. The reader can easily discover the unequal disparity between blacks and whites through the language, especially when Joe Louis wins and all his African American fans felt just as equal in the world as white people. â€Å"If Joe lost we were back in slavery and beyond help. It would all be true, the accusations that we were lower types of human beings.† Winning t his battle was not just for the title when it came to Joe Louis and his black community; it was for their pride. Lastly, the author uses the setting and the actions of the characters to recognize the importance of the fight in â€Å"Champion of the World.† They watched the match in Maya Angelou’s Uncle Willie’s store. Angelou gives a clear image in the reader’s head of how crowded the story was of family and friends. The radio was turned up to the last notch so that the children sitting on the porch outside could hear. The women sat on chairs, stools, and wooden boxes, men had to lean on shelves or on each other, while babies were perched up on every lap possible. Maya Angelou stresses the family rule of quietness during the fight. No one was aloud to use the cash register to ring up customers because it was simply too noisy and it might â€Å"shake up the atmosphere.† So when the unusual customer dragged along Maya or her brother would lay the coins down on the cash register instead.

WARNING This Essay Has No Title! - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 19 Words: 5678 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Chapter 1 1.0 Introduction. Schools / education institutions were traditionally a place for professionals to conduct their activities and a place for them to spend their leisure time. Then it gain respect and trust from the public it evolve as a place to learn knowledge and gain information. In recent years, government across nation and continent has increase or at least putting a certain amount of their spending in education sector. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "WARNING: This Essay Has No Title!" essay for you Create order Malaysia in particular has taken measures to increase its spending on education substantially. It is believed that education work as a tool to improve oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s income and promote economic growth as a whole. Quality education has to be provided to people from all walks of live especially those who can not afford taking private education Jallade (1976). One way or another, school is assigned to take on the hard intellectual work of educating students which in return benefits the society in many ways mainly in improving income distribution. On the other hand, spending in education has take into account from various sub sectors not only by building physical assets such as school, college or university. Spending include providing sufficient teaching materials as in book and notes, teaching equipment as in projectors and computers. Those are just to name a few, besides that, research and development of a better education system is another major part in education spending. Everything has its value and cost so does education. Hence, there will be no free way to educate people. While fore-seeing education is able to increase oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s earning and improve income inequality, there must be a definite amount of money has to be invested in the education sector. Even investing in education has been done, to improve and ensure the less fortunate groups of people is able to be to retain benefits from it, government spending on public education has to be emphasized. 1.1 Background of Study Malaysia as a developing nation which work hard on increasing its production and improve its income distribution at the same time is putting big effort to ensure the goal is within reach. Therefore in order to achieve the objective, Malaysia has adopted policy to increase its spending on education. For decades education is believed to be a catalyst in increasing oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s income. Besides that, education also makes social mobility possible. As social mobility is made possible, better income distribution among household is no longer beyond reach. Income distribution in Malaysia has not reach the ideal level. Meanwhile, there is as well room for increase in production which in turn leads to economic growth as a whole. Even though Malaysia stands a good reputation among countries in South-East Asia with respect of its economic wise but in term of its education quality, income as well income distribution it is far behind from its neighbouring country such as Singapore. Realizing education has an important role in promoting not only income and income distribution, Malaysia has increases its spending over the years. On top of increase its expenditure on education, Malaysia also adopting policies of better education distribution which in turn promote income equality among Malaysians. Stylized Fact Figure 1.1 Government Education Spending (RM Millions) from 1976 to 2008 Sources: World Bank Data Figure 1 shows Malaysia government education expenditure in RM/ million from year 1976 to 2008. From the graph above, it display a continuity increase in education spending from 1976 to 2002. A significant increase in the expenditure is recorded in 1999 (RM 3856mil) to 2002 (RM 12436mil) where RM 8571mil increment took place in 4 years time. The significant increase in the spending is due to government policy to emphasize on human capital development under the ruling of Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. After the major increase, education spending seems to drop a little for the coming few years. However, the spending is considered increase consistently over the years from 1976 to 2002. Figure 1.2 GDP Per Capita (Constant 2000 USD) from 1976 to 2008 Sources: World Bank Data Figure 1.2 demonstrates GDP per capita at constant 2000 USD from the year 1976 to 2008. Base on the graph above, it display a steady increase in GDP per capita from 1976 to 1984. However, there is a slight decrease recorded during 1985 due to economy downturn in the 1980s. A steady increase is continued to take place from 1986 to 1997. As Asia financial crisis occur in 1997, it has lead to a decrease in GDP per capita at the following year. It has drop from $4044 USD for 1997 to $3654 USD for 1998. After the crisis took place, Malaysia economy is recovering and again GDP per capita shows a positive increase from 1999 to 2008. GDP per capita increase has a similar pattern with the increase in government education spending. Therefore it is believe there is a positive relationship between the two variables. 1.3 Problem statement. Government education expenditure is mainly invested in public education system as to enable people from all walks of life to receive its benefits. In order to achieve the objective, government expenditure has to be fairly distributed. Uneven education distribution will result in a wider gap of income inequality among household who participate in different economy sectors. As the poor is unable to equip themselves with necessary knowledge and skills to increase productivity, they are trapped in a situation where they work with low productivity and low income. Without proper education, whichever sector a person participates in, it would not allows them to earn higher income. While particularly for those who work in primary sector, insufficient education make impossible for them to shift to other sector. At this moment, if government education fund is not properly channeled there will be a problem where those who has potential in upgrading their knowledge and skills but can not afford to study in private education will be such a waste. Recently launched New Economic Model (NEM) has stated a plan to turn Malaysia to a high income nation. Therefore failing in utilize government public education spending will have a significant effect in producing high productivity and skillful individual resulting Malaysia unable to achieve high income nation. More over, is the education spending is unable to reached targeted groups there will be a situation of the less wealthy continuously trap in their initial social status. It happen so as they are unable to close income inequality gap thus the rich is richer and the poor remain poor. Thus, the study of how significant is the effect of government public education spending on income distribution and income growth is conducted. On the other hand, this study will also identify the significance of income distribution and income growth in Malaysia. 1.4 Objective of Study The general objective in this study is to discover if Malaysia government spending in education is enjoy by every citizen particularly those who are less wealthy and unable to gain access to private education. Besides that, this study is to carry out observation whether income is fairly distributed among Malaysian as economy growing. The specific objective in this study is to examine the effect of government education spending towards income distribution and income per capita in Malaysia. 1.5 Significance of the Study. Government spending on education is recorded in an increasing trend for the past decades. Therefore it is crucial to identify if the spending has a strong positive effect on income growth and income equality. Implementation of proper policies according to current situation are acquired in order government spending is used efficiently. 1.6 Organization of the Study. Through out the study from the beginning towards the end, it is divided to 5 chapters. Chapter 1 in this study consists of introduction, background study, stylized fact, problem statement, objective, significance of study and as well as organization of study. As for chapter 2 it only compromise literature review. While chapter 3 covers methodology, source of data as well as reference. Chapter 4 includes hypothesis, analysis of test and also review on the result obtained. Finally, chapter 5 concludes upon the conducted study. Chapter 2 2.0 Literature Review Income Inequality In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on the effects of government social and education spending on income distribution. Most people will preferred a less skewed income distribution to a highly skewed income distribution. (Sylwester, 2002). As income inequality will do more harm than good to a nationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s economic. For an instance uneven income distribution will affect political stability in a country. Giving many undesirable outcomes from income inequality on economic and political environment, its better to understand how policies are made to affect the income distribution. A common opinion is that education play a vital role in decreasing income inequality. Therefore producing human capital as a way to overcome income inequality and gain support over public education. Countries with more human capital tend to have less income inequality. (Sylwester, 2002). Under this circumstance, public education plays a very important role to lower inco me inequality as public education can be enjoyed by people from all walks of life especially the poor. (Jallade, 1976). As a result public education will decreases income imbalance subsequently. On the other hand, Slywester (2002) comes up with a model where income inequality can be lowered provided one has sufficient wealth to give up income and attend school. However, if one is too poor, the income inequality will worsen as the poor are taxed over revenue but fail to enjoy public education. On top of that, many of the public education expenditure do not reach the poor, so it does not rectify income imbalance. As a result, there is no guarantee on lower income imbalance while there is more budget with respect of GDP on education spending. (Sylwester, 2002). Although countries with high human capital has lower level of income imbalance, but subsequently they will have hard time to further reduce income inequality. Countries that commit a bigger portion of budget with respect of GDP on education have lower income imbalance in subsequent years. (Sylwester, 2002). Spending on education is vital in producing human capital and in return reduced income inequality and promotes econ omic growth. (Sylwester, 2002). Seeing that as a way to promote economic growth, countries with relatively high level of income inequality will spend more on education hoping to achieve reasonable level of income imbalance. More generally, spending on education will increase only if the spending produced a less skewed than the initial income distribution. (Jallade, 1976). Spending on education in well developed countries have a faster pace of reducing income imbalance as to compare with less developed countries that slowly reduce the inequality. (Sylwester, 2002). Level of income inequality is less effective measured in well developed country as the rate is based on samples and not represent the country as a whole. (Jallade, 1976) Recent literature consist a study on education to improve productivity in farming industry hence increase income and lower income imbalance. Tao (2004) has mentioned in his report an agricultural based province with schooling will encourage farmers to invest more labor and capital to nonfarm production rather than farm production. Transformation across sector has contributed an increase in income for the participants. On the other hand, advancement of technology compatible with the transformation enable productivity efficiency in return generates higher income for households. Education is the engine to facilitate resources allocation as they expend the nonfarm production. (Tao, 2004). Besides transformation, education as well enable enhancement of human capital to think critically and respond correctly on market changes. In particular improve farm allocation and farmersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ skills. Education has a greater effect during technical change period as it will facilitate the use of market inputs. On the other hand, education has a bigger effect in modern and dynamic environment as schooling during transition of market and political environment in Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s policy reforms. (Tao, 2004). However, return from education can be still exploited whenever there is chance of increasing its return. Schooling plays a vital role in educating people to allocate scarce resources in critical field which increase oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s income. For the period of modern day, education is not only used in improving technical efficiency but as a path to obtain managing skills. Managing skills mentioned is not farm managing skills but skills on transforming agricultural products to nonagricultural products. (Tao, 2004). Persons who obtained those skills will likely be chosen as decision maker in the family. Based on Tao (2004) finding, there is an obvious increase in income of household during the period of policy reform. There is a positive relation between education level and sustainable income growth. Positive relation between education level and sustainable income growth is very crucial for policy makers to ascertain spending on education to strengthen the system. Meanwhile, having more physical capital and human capital in nonfarm sector is another form of positive relation with education. Where by skills and knowledge attained from education is utilized in controlling capital assets. (Tao, 2004). Therefore, family with the highest education tends to put in more human capital in nonfarm production to increase their income proportionally. Moreover, schooling works as a catalyst in household to respond quickly to the environment and market changes (farm to nonfarm production) in return generates income growth especially in suburban area. Education works as a stepping stone for individuals to shift up in the social ladder. (Jallade, 1976). However, an effect of education on income distribution is actually smaller than expected and we can not depend greatly on education to equalize income distribution. Socio-economic groups at large still depend highly on education as social mobility even though the effect is no significant. Similar cases happen relatively higher in many developing countries where middle class household trying their best to secure a place in university in hope to have a social mobility in future but it is still an open question. (Jallade, 1976). In the sense of private education, unequal income lead to unequal consumption in education is a fact. There fore, government has to play its part to provide public education for the society. From the other point of view, spending on education has to take into account that to what extent does educational development has towards schooling distribution, not only consider development in education towards income inequality. (Jallade, 1976). Thus, the poor has to be compensated for their not-so-high investment in education. As the poor increase their involvement in higher education, chances to improve education level as a whole is higher, it will indirectly decrease income inequality among household. There are debates over the quality of private education able to provide as to compare with public education. (Jallade, 1976). In order to ensure there is a balance between private and public education, (namely higher education) government not only required to regulate policies for public education but also required to invest more resources in it. One way is subsidization. Government subsidization in education encourages somehow a competition to private education. In order to compete with public education, private education must at least offer a fair schooling fee for students where in return more people is educated and decreases income imbalance. (Jallade, 1976). On few levels of education, primary education has the strongest and positive effect on income distribution. (Jallade, 1976). Better income equality is made possible if education subsidizes and taxes on educated individual are fairly distributed among social groups. (Jallade, 1976). Again, government involvement is needed in order to ensure the fair distribution of income is work. Else, the poor is unable to enjoy the benefits which are created for them. Education act as an instrument to encourage economic growth and income distribution. (Holanda et al, 2008). Imperfect credit markets an others market limitation unable to provide the amount of education that society required. For that reason, government has to intervene either indirectly or directly to enable those who can not afford private education will at least able to obtain public education. Problem is that there is a significant quality difference between public and private education. (Holanda et al , 2008). Private education is believed to be able regulate itself through competition where as public education has to be regulated in order to achieve a least quality requirement. The case of State of Ceara (Brazil) introduced 2 public education regulatory namely public voucher system and system based on teacher incentives. (Holanda et al , 2008). Public voucher system will give out incentives to public school to enhance their efficiency at the same time will penalize the least efficient school. While system based on teacher incentive is teacher or principal with excellent performance will receive a sort of incentive to further increase their efficiency. Both system acquired government to spend on education to stimulate a healthy competition among public school. (Holanda et al , 2008). Besides spending, government should as well put regulatory system in public education to impose competition among them thus will improve the education system as a whole. A study conducted by Ram (1989) has indicated a large portion of education spending is taken up by teacherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s salary. Thus, real spending on education is assumed to be expended at the same degree. Many countries particularly developing nation has put a heavy priority on increasing education expenditure. (Ram, 1989). Government across the world believed education make productivity increase possible hence increasing income and promote economic growth as a whole. Meanwhile, expansion in education also enables literacy to increase and a better economic opportunity for all, a factor which is very much needed in countries with high income inequality. Above all the studies that have been conducted, World Bank as well find that investment in education not affecting present generationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s income but also affecting future generationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s income distribution and unemployment in long run. As we can see, there is an obvious à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“chain of reactionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? in spending on education where todayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s spending determines futureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s distribution. Ram (1989) pointed a different opinion regarding the extension in education is actually will lead to distribution among workers-to-be where else it change nothing in income distribution between current worker. In this sense it will create a circumstances where fresh graduates has great opportunity to get job while those who did not benefits from additional education has a worsen opportunity to get a better job. As a result, increase in education is not sufficient to improve income equality in the bigger picture. Increase in education spending has to be move along with policies of better access to education for public through out the nation. Outcome of schooling depends greatly on the better education receiver. (Ram, 1989). Another study conducted by Ning (2010), stated that increasing education expenses without adequate changes in education structure and providing a conducive industry, it actually did not improve much income inequality. Less wealthy background children tend to has more desire to attend school as to improve their family source of income. In contrast, poor family is unable to provide their children better education, this reflects initial income inequality will additional deteriorate income distribution in time to come. (Ning, 2010). Again the poor will trap in the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“chain reactionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Therefore government spending with a proper policy is able to provide education to the needed accordingly unless everyone is able to invest in education sufficiently. On the other hand, Uplh (1977) as well mentioned education distribution is affected by wealth and income. For that reason, government is required to implement better income equality policies and fairer education distribution simultaneously with increase in education spending to obtain the best result in reducing income inequality. Higher average of education turn out to be income equality enhancer however higher mean of education with bigger education inequality turn out to be income disequalizer. (Ram, 1983). Ram (1983) pointed that higher average of schooling promotes income equality nevertheless revealed there is no observable relation between greater schooling variance generates larger income inequality. Income growth One hand of low education and another hand of relatively high household income are factors that contribute deterioration of income distribution thus decreases national income growth rate as a whole. (Borsu, 1991). Klasen (2008) discovered that there is a causality relation between education and income distribution, which initially the rich can afford better education and turn out to be rich as well in the future. In contrast the poor who can not afford education at the first place facing difficulties to get rid of poverty. Hence, the poor will trap in poverty and this situation will go on for years. Government intervention is acquired to regulate education spending in order to provide fairer education distribution. Besides focusing on education spending, government who intend to improve income inequality has to implement policies emphasizing on encourage higher enrollment rate in public financed school. (Chen, 2003). Meanwhile on the other hand, liberalization on credit market offer loan in favor of those who take on private education enables more people to gain access in schooling. (Chen, 2003). Both way most likely turn out to be a major contributor in promoting economic growth as well as fairer income distribution. Few ways of government channeling fund to education are namely highly-subsidized public education, direct subsidize private schools and direct subsidize to household who attend private schools. Chen (2003) ascertained besides how much expenditure is spent on education, how education spending is channeled through proper system is an important determinant of income equality and economic growth. Under public education system, Chen (2003) observed a lower income inequality since every personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s investment in education is about the same and vice versa under private education. Towards the middle of Chen (2003) study, a crucial finding is obtained saying high income nation generally has a greater rate of enrollment in schooling proving that education is vital in affecting income growth. In turn to attain the objective, compulsory schooling system has to be enforced. Government has to raise fund in order to sustain an increase in education spending. Fund is raised through tax imposed to adult and then using it to finance education. An increase in tax rate will result an increase in public schools expenditure per capita as well increase subsidy in private schools. (Chen, 2003). Eventually, it provides better education for all hence perk up income growth and income inequality. Based on a study conducted by Croix et al (2007), he come across a situation where education level can not solely be a determinant of salary. In his studies, he pointed the existence of low education worker with high experience is earning more than those who has high education but low working experience. Through this study, it shown that there is other determinant instead of education level in determining income growth and income distribution. In case of China, Goh et al (2009) observed during economy restructuring in 1990s seeing potential companies laying off less educational qualified worker while increasing salary for those who are more educational qualified (skilled). Under this circumstances, household income indicator implies that education make possible in favor of household who wish to shift their employment from primary to secondary sector or from secondary sector to tertiary sector. (Goh et al, 2009). In contrast, return towards education persist to facilitate the educated, the less educated will left far behind in term of income distribution and income growth. During pre-sector evolution era, education level play a less important role determining income earned. Ever since pre-sector evolution, education level has turn out to be a key factor in determining income earned. (Goh et al, 2009). Therefore it is obvious education is pretty crucial in preserving income increase. Towards the end of Goh et al (2009) studies, he pointed the largest changes in household income is attributed by higher return on education as economy reforming and technology deepening. More over, balancing in demand and supply of skill occurs as labor market performs efficiently, every individual acquire a job and even less skilled labor able to demand a better pay. Thus, education churns out to be a bridge getting better income for society. Study conducted by Lakshmi (1992) declared public spending on education is shown to be more effective improving living standard rather than improving income growth itself. Over the years, many economists have different view of developing nation should adopt growth-oriented system or equity-oriented system with respect of income inequality, income growth or living standard as a whole. (Lakshmi, 1992). A nation with sufficient education in the sense that its labor is skilled, the nation is eligible to implement growth-oriented or equity-oriented policy. Without adequate education or fairly distributed education, implementing any of the policy will result in worsening income distribution. Growth-oriented policy provides an increase in growth rate per capita for a nation. As income rise, household are relatively richer than they used to. Hence, they demand more on health care and so on. Firms started to supply those services and gain profit, thus economy as a whole is improving. (Lakshmi, 1992). While equity-oriented system may work as a tool to channel fund such as education and medical care towards targeted groups by subsidy. Out come from this system is a fairer distribution to all. Although schools and higher education institutions are open for all, as to poor parents they are unable to send their children to obtain proper education. In other word, poor parentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ ability to educate their children is relatively low as to compare wealthy parents. Therefore, poor families rely heavily on government subsidy on education to have their children educated and enable them to have upward social mobility and be paid a better wage in the future. (Lakshmi, 1992). As mentioned by Jamison et al (2007) national income growth rate can be increase by better level of education quality which is strongly supported by Solmon (!985). Besides education quality, a nation with prosper education is able to produce better human capital to enhance income growth. (Judson, 1998). Blankenau (2003) once stated government, is responsible to fund human capital production through education. Chapter 3 3.0 Methodology Increase in GDP per capita or in other words growth for GDP per capita is affected by few factors mainly education spending. In order to ensure validity of the effect, a model is developed as part of the study to show how GDP per capita growth is affected by few variables. Time series data is used in regression. The simple function of this study is written as; Y ~ F (ES, K, L, EX) After the variables in the study being substituted into the function and the logarithm function is as follows; lnY = ÃŽÂ ²0 + ÃŽÂ ²1 lnES + ÃŽÂ ²2 lnK + ÃŽÂ ²3 lnL + ÃŽÂ ²4 lnEX + ÃŽÂ µt Where: Y = GDP per capita ES = Education spending K = Capital L = Labor EX = Export ÃŽÂ µ = Error term From the function above, GDP per capita is the dependent variable while the independent variable is education spending while capital, labor, export as well error term work as control variables. Dependent and independent variable used in function are needed in determining the significance of the study. Spending on education or more specifically government spending on education has a positive effect on GDP per capita growth and as well income growth. It is expected to have a positive relation, increase on GDP per capita jointly with the increase of spending on education, so ÃŽÂ ²1 is expected to be positive. Besides that, capital/physical capital is directly affecting GDP per capita. An increase in physical capital is believed to increase GDP per capita as well income for household simultaneously. Based on a study conducted by Croix et al (2007), he come across a situation where education level can not solely be a determinant of salary Therefore ÃŽÂ ²2 is expected to be positive as well. On the other hand, labor is forecasted to be positively related with GDP per capita. Bigger labor force causes more income contribution to the country but it does not lift the number of population. While dividing countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s income, it will increase income per capita as a whole. Thus, ÃŽÂ ²3 is expected to be positive too. As for ÃŽÂ ²4, export in national account is a source of income for a country. Higher export value in turn generates higher GDP in the sense of countries across the world are purchasing goods from the country. On the other hand, education spending is believed to be able improve income equality as well. In order to prove the finding whether government education spending has a significant effect in improving income equality a model is developed to carry out the testing. Gini coefficient data is used to carry out the study. Few others control variables are identified mainly education spending and use in the model to ensures validity of the result. Time series data is used in regression. The simple function of this study is written as; Y~ F (ES, GDPPC, E, INF) After the variables in the study being substituted into the function and the logarithm function is as follows; lnY1 = ÃŽÂ ²0 + ÃŽÂ ²1 lnES + ÃŽÂ ²2 lnGDPPC + ÃŽÂ ²3 lnE + ÃŽÂ ²4 lnINF + ÃŽÂ µt Where: Y1 = Gini coefficient ES = Education spending GDPPC = GDP per capita E = Employment INF = Inflation ÃŽÂ µ = Error term From the model above, Gini coefficients turn to be dependent variable while the independent variable is education spending while other variables work as control variables. All variables are selected upon the purpose of the study which is, is there a positive relationship between government spending on education and income equality. Government education spending is believed to have positive relation with income equality. An increase in government education spending there will be an improvement in income inequality. Thus, ÃŽÂ ²1 is expected to be positive. Besides that GDP per capita has a certain level of influence on income distribution as higher GDP per capita in general showing a better income earned by households. Therefore ÃŽÂ ²2 is expected to be positive as well. Employment rate on the other hand contribute better income distribution to some extent. Higher employment rate attribute better numbers in income earner thus enhance income distribution in a way. As for this reason, ÃŽÂ ²3 is presumed to be positive. Meanwhile, inflation churns out to be disequalizer in income distribution. Greater inflation leads to worsen income equality. Low income earner will badly affected as if compare to the poor. Increase in inflation lower their real income hence wider income distribution gap. Consequently ÃŽÂ ²4 is expected to be negative. 3.1 Multiple Regressions Multiple regressions model is used to explain whether dependent variable Y has relation with independent variables X1, X2, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ , Xn and error term, ÃŽÂ µ. Y = ÃŽÂ ²0 + ÃŽÂ ²1X1 + ÃŽÂ ²2X2 + à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. ÃŽÂ ²nXn + ÃŽÂ µ Multiple regressions model shows how mean value of Y is related to X1, X2, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, Xn E(Y) = ÃŽÂ ²0 + ÃŽÂ ²1X1 + ÃŽÂ ²2X2 + à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ + ÃŽÂ ²nXn Estimated multiple regression model says that a simple random sample is used to calculate sample statistic b0, b1, b2, , bn that use as point estimator for parameter ÃŽÂ ²0, ÃŽÂ ²1, ÃŽÂ ²2, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, ÃŽÂ ²n. In the mean time, b1 stand for an estimate of changing in Y corresponding to a 1 unit increase or decrease in X1 when all independent variables held constant. Ã…Â ¶ = b0 + b1 X1 + b2X2 + à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ + bnXn Least Square Method Least square method is a popular way to compute numerical parameters estimation and as well include data. More over, characteristic of statistical properties is able to be projected through this way. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) and Weighted Least Square (WLS) are two of least square method. As to compare both methods, OLS is the better way to use in computing numerical parameters estimation due to its simplicity. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) OLS used to forecast the unknown parameters in linear regression model. Ordinary least square method utilizes the following equation: First use sample regression function (SRF) corresponding to the population regression function (PRF). represent residual term where sample counter part of stochastic disturbance term. .. 3.1.3 T-Test: Regression on each independent variables T-Test is used to check if each and every independent variable is significant. Each and every independent variable is compute upon T-Test to ensure its significance. Partial coefficient hypothesis testing: H0 : ÃŽÂ ²1 = 0 H1 : ÃŽÂ ²1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚   0 Formula for T-Test is: t = If t-value critical value, reject H0 If t-value critical value, do not reject H0 If result rejecting H0, it means there is a positive relation between dependent and independent variables. 3.1.4 F-Test: Overall significance of estimated multiple regression F-test used to test if there is existence of significance relation between all independent variables upon dependent variable. Hypothesis for F-test : H0 : ÃŽÂ ²2 = ÃŽÂ ²3 = .. = ÃŽÂ ²k = 0 H1 : Not all slopes coefficient are simultaneously zero Formula for F-Test is: Where, ESS = estimate sum of square RSS = regression sum of square If F-value critical value then reject H0 If F-value critical value then do not reject H0 If result is rejecting H0 it means there is a positive relation between all independent variables and dependent variable. R ²: Multiple coefficient of determination R ² is a coefficient of determinants. It is used to compute the goodness of fit in a model. Higher value of R ² indicates greater F-Test value with better goodness of fit. Formula for R ² is: R ² = or R ² = 1 Where, ESS = Explained sum of squares TSS = Total sum of squares RSS = Residual sum of squares R ² lies between 0 and 1. When R ² = 0, it indicates the model can not be explained. When R ² = 1, it indicates there is a total variation in Y that can be explained by X. When R ² is close to 1 then it indicates the model is fit. Autocorrelation : First order = Durbin Watson d-test Durbin Watson d-test is used to test whether residuals are independent of time. While testing, there is assumption of lagged variable is not included in dependent variable and data set is complete. Durbin Watson d-test hypothesis is: H0 = no first order autocorrelation, P = 0 H1 = first order autocorrelation, P not equal 0 Formula for R ² is: Where, et = residual in observation D-value usually lies between 0 to 4. When d-value is smaller than 2 then it means there is a positive correlated in error term. When d-value is larger than 2 then it means there is a negative correlated in error term. Multicollinearity Multicollinearity stands for the present of a perfect linear relation on some or all explanatory variables in a regression model. Exact linear relationship is say to be exist when Y1X1 + Y2X2 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ + YnXn = 0 is fit. New version of multicollinearity stated in a wider coverage and includes perfect multicollinearity. On the other hand it also covers the situation when X variables are intercorrelated but not perfectly intercorrelated which Vi is stochastic. Y1X1 + Y2X2 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ + YnXn + Vi = 0 Data Time series data is used through out this study to compute correlation between dependent and independent variables. To ensure validity of testing conducted, time series data of minimum 20 30 years is used in regression. Data are selected from 1970s to 2000s. Types of data used are namely GDP per capita, Gini coefficient, government education spending, employment, inflation and capital as well labor in Malaysia. Above mentioned data is retrieved mainly from World Bank Data, Bank Negara Malaysia, Department of Statistic Malaysia lastly Economy Planning Unit Malaysia.